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It will be processed by 40the operations team. It is important to know that there are contingencies.
When a worker is not available, new tasks are communicated via email
You can leave the email at the office door, and you would need to check it as soon as possible.
Matter of interest rather than necessity.
6.3.2 Does email activity outside of normal business hours really reduce strain?
Even though it may seem counterintuitive to try and catch up with your email, you might find yourself dealing with it out of hours.
Keep up with work and be productive (Barley et. al., 2011; Middleton & Cukier).
2006; Pignata et al., 2015, Renaud et al., 2006), Sumecki et al. (2011)
Their large-scale study found that email was not frequently checked out-of-hours.
Worker’s perceptions of overload are changed in a tangible way That is why
The act of checking could be considered work, even if it was not.
email to be dealt with later), it could have been frequent checking,
They were able to maintain a sense of work load by not dealing with email.
Sumecki and colleagues’ study suggests that workers check email frequently.
They work extra hours because they don’t want to miss important emails.
The ‘pressure to react’ norm noted in Section 5.3 may continue to apply to workers after that.
The work domain (Mazmanian and Ragsdell, 2005). Waller and Ragsdell (2012)
Participants indicated that they didn’t expect a quick reply from their colleagues.
This may not be communicated to recipients if they are emailed out-of-hours.
Receiving out-of-hours emails is a major problem (even if you don’t need to reply).
It is important to note that workers won’t feel disengaged from their jobs.
Being available continuously (Mazmanian and al., 2005). Ability to
To recover personal reserves, it is important to mentally disconnect from work
From work (Flaxman and al., 2012). Mazmanian et al. Their mobile-based research (2005) found that their mobile-
Email users complained that they didn’t know when their email wasn’t working.
They felt more stressed because they didn’t have enough downtime. Our
Study: Participants C and G reported that they value the opportunity to fully immerse themselves in their studies.
When on vacation, switch off email
6.3.3 Emailing outside of business hours and work-family conflict

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Email may not be as intrusive as other communication methods, but it can still be used.
There are numerous reports that it can infringe upon the work-home boundary.
Conflict between work and family can be a problem. Family members and spouses are especially vulnerable.
They are often annoyed when their work email is sent with them while they’re on vacation.
This makes the worker feel ‘liberated’ (Mazmanian and colleagues, 2005; Middleton, Cukier).
2006). Email activity outside of work hours can lead to conflict between the family and work, both directly and indirectly.
Because of its effect on work overload (Turel and al., 2011). This is less common.
Problem for younger workers who seem to be able to accept fuzzy boundaries between the two
Work and home life are interconnected and we’re happy to let work email have an impact on our home lives
domain to vice versa (Fallows 2002; Waller & Ragsdell 2012). It is therefore
Older workers are the ones most affected by work-family conflict.
Mobile work email usage (Turel and al., 2011), which is a concern given that it is more prevalent than previously thought.
Experienced workers tend to spend more time on email work outside of normal hours (Waller).
Ragsdell (2012)
We found that participants younger than us were more relaxed in our sense-checking interviews
Concerning out-of-hours emailing, and either actively tried (e.g. Participant
J) or to manage expectations regarding use. Participants K and L share:
41
“I try to do good things and not do the frivolous stuff of the evening. If I do, it is only for a few minutes.
I will be open about it and tell my spouse, “I’ll need to.”
Spend an hour and then set the time that I will need to complete it.
“Generally speaking, I don’t need to do too many out-of-hours tasks” (Participant
K).
“I will respond to students within working hours if possible.”
I don’t want them to email me at 7/8pm.
They’ll get an answer in the evening …. It’s all about managing.
Management of expectations and norms When we speak of work
It can creep into your home and make it difficult to live a normal life. But it also offers many benefits.
I have the flexibility to finish work at night if necessary
to. It feels like a tradeoff. Flexibility for not keeping.
A strong separation between work and home …. It’s integral to me
It is a part of my everyday life, and even my home life, than a complete set.
division” (Participant L).
However, it seemed more difficult to find a balance.
our part-time workers:

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“If it is on the side, I will check it. This is something.
This has led to a better work-life balance. You’re
This is not something you need to do at work, but it’s something you can do a little of.
A coping mechanism for me is: If I know what I’m going
Back to: I can relax a bit while I’m away if I know what’s happening
Around me …” (Participant A).
“It’s stressful and it makes me feel as if I have no control over my life.”
Keep your phone close at hand in case you need it.
You can do something in the evening. It’s really stressful.”
(Participant I).
6.3.4 Avoid out-of-hours activities
The SLR studies didn’t specifically address those who refused to work after-hours.
Emailing is a popular method of communication, but our sense-checking interviews showed that many workers are active.
You are trying to disconnect from email away work by clicking on the “Unsubscribe” button. Example: Participant H
Accessing work email via her phone is not an option for her – mostly because she doesn’t.
She believes she could not resist it if an out-of-hours email was sent. She
Reports that she is anxious when work interferes with her personal life outside of working hours.
Participant J has disabled his work email notifications from his smartphone, and will
Except in exceptional circumstances, we will not respond to emails outside of normal business hours.
According to him, he used check his email on Sunday nights before returning home.
To the office, he won’t do that right now, but will still be available to work early to handle any issues
With email before his coworkers have arrived.
Participant F reports, however, how the norm for working outside-of-hours could be
Contagious, despite all efforts to resist it
“Even though it has an associate model, it’s really fascinating
If one person is operating out of hours, the other will follow suit.
respond. One example: A mum is one of our associates.
Part-time work, lots of work on Sunday night and…
I won’t reply, I may see it there, however, I won’t necessarily respond.
You can respond up to Monday morning, because it’s her choice

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I work on Sunday evenings. However, I do see other members of my team.
Team responding
These studies show that while many email users are engaged and active, they perceive that it is not the case.
It is important to deal with emails outside of normal business hours. This is a great way to keep track of work.
It seems to be a common practice in certain work settings and for some workers.
Rather than an occasional necessity in high-volume times, As such,
The boundaries between leisure and work have blurred.
Younger workers may have fewer problems, but it can be a problem with work-family relationships.
Conflict, especially for older workers (who tend to recall the premobile)
Email is a common tool, and people who use it are more likely to have dependent children. It has also
Resulted in norms of quick response and checking to continue into non-work
domain even if the email sender only wants to complete his/her work tasks.
Expect an immediate response. Although the internet has evolved to be a means of communicating information, it is still a standard way of doing things.
Many SLR studies have shown that employees can keep on top of their work by using SLR.
Engage with an out-of-hours email to continue feeling overwhelmed and under stress
activity. This seems to be a requirement for those who are unable to respond within hours.
Active resistance or self-control
Recent reports from Europe about legislation and policies being implemented are a testament to this.
We were interested in a system that would restrict workers’ access to email after-hours.
Asking our interviewees what they would feel if this regu lation was applied
to their work. Approximately equal numbers of participants indicated that they would.
Participants should not be concerned if they are unable to access email after-hours (Participants)
As those who sometimes vehemently concluded that they would not, B, G, and H, as well as K.
Participants D, F, and I are able to perform their jobs without constant access (Participants D-F and I), particularly
During the week (Participant A).
“Definitely not, no. It would only… it would just… my work would just
struggle, suffer. It wouldn’t be possible to do without being able
Access email at any time and anywhere you are.” (Participant 7)
Participant F suggested she could support an out-of hours restriction if it was necessary
She worked for a company rather than being self-employed but she was a part-time worker in her day job.
Flexibility was important for her worker. Participant L stated that she could make it work with email
Access was limited out-of-hours but she preferred to keep the current
Flexibility to work when she wants. None of the participants was clearly positive
Email access will be removed. To confirm our tentative sense-
After reviewing the results, we recommend that a large-scale research be done.
Designed to determine how restrictions on access might affect people’s lives.
Goals that relate to both productivity and well-being.

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6.4 Impact of different strategies
It was evident from all the SLR studies that the order of these studies is the same.
Workers’ strategies to navigate each technological landmark in email applications
They have been created to serve one goal and not another. For
For example, an approach to responding quickly to emails may be a good strategy.
Respecting colleagues but not to the detriment to personal well-being (as
People feel pressured to respond. Clear strategy for storing and filing email
Although folders and categories can help you feel in control, they can also be distracting.
Retrieving old email can be cumbersome and confusing, which could lead to a loss of the goal.
efficiency. Participants C and G reported this problem in our sense-
Interviews to be checked.
43
Researchers have started to refer to this paradox in email (O’Kane, and
Hargie, 2007, the idea that email activity can cause as many problems as it helps
It solves (Venolia and al. 2001) the problem of workers trying to
Strategically manage it (M. iddleton & Cukier 2006). O’Kane, for example.
Hargie (2007) completed a qualitative study on knowledge workers.
That email enabled people to:
Communicate in a timely and accurate manner
Allow permanency for exchanges
Transcend hierarchies
Build relationships.
improve organisational understanding.
These are the benefits of email usage and they were deemed to be an important tool.
Realizing work goals and, indeed, the sense-checking participants report about some
These benefits include building relationships and establishing new ones.
“[Email] is a powerful tool for introducing yourself to the world…
Introduce people to each other. I often encourage people to meet.
Together because I have a lot people who know me from over
Over the years I have been able to introduce people and this gives me more.
Potential currency/leverage for collaboration” (Participant A).
Hargie and O’Kane (2007) found email can also be a disadvantage.
Workers in that it
Increases task load

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Reduces face-to-face exchanges
People to ‘hide’ and lead to misinterpretation
Allows people to avoid responsibility and be non-responsive
This can lead to increased strain due to overload and lack of control.
Communication problems can be a problem
These consequences can be both accidental and intentional, as the authors explain.
Unintentional and argument e that people’s email self awareness needs to be
These solutions were created to address some of these issues.
6.4.1 Email paradoxes: How they were created
A study done by Anthony and Dawley in 2003 found that the public sector is more profitable than the private sector.
Workers found email useful in reducing the number meetings.
It was reported that it helped with time management and improved communications.
a problem of overload at work because workers didn’t learn how to incorporate it
into their work day. Si milarly, while 100 percent of Ingham’s ((2003) twenty
Participants reported that email was very helpful or very helpful to their work.
Equal proportions of email recipients attested to either a positive (56%), or an adverse (110%).
(44%) Impact on decision-making capability Decision-making was
This was particularly true when email inboxes were backedlogged.
Resources available to make informed and well-informed decisions Emails in large volumes
a particular contradiction in their goal benefits. Mano and Mesch (2010)
It was found that increased email volume was associated with better work.
Effectiveness, but also higher stress levels and psychological distress.
In their self-reporting participants. Nurmi (2011) reported similar results with high levels of
Volumes of email are associated with the resolution of ambiguity and uncertainty.
overload can have a negative effect on your health. Interview participant
Email is not a perfect medium. It can be “quick and timeless”, however, this was acknowledged by email.

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International, and makes it feel connected”, email can also “generate an
Expectation of behavior that is not explicitly stated” (Participant F).
Middleton (2006) and Cukier (2006) distinguish between short-term and long-term benefits.
Email use can cause long-term problems. They identify immediate issues in the short-term.
Email can lead to a number of efficiency gains. Email can be used to automate tasks such as the
Benefits of instant exchanges and the ability to reach multiple recipients at once
The ability to work at the same time can lead to increased productivity, which in turn leads workers.
Positive perceptions of email being a critical tool for work (Whittaker)
Sidner, 1997 Fallows’ 2002 study found that 86% of participants reported having been contacted by the company.
They found that email saved them time. Also, Middleton, Howe ver and Cukier (2006)
Report the delayed effects of email behavior on cultural and social outcomes. For
For example, emailing outside of work can cause problems in the family.
While the desire for immediate action can lead to problematic social behaviors such as
absent-presence. Middleton (2006) and Cukier (2006) conclude, “Organisations need to be present.”
To protect yourself from the long-term consequences of email use, create policies
Workers who are unable to see the long-term consequences of their actions will be affected.
Email use may have influenced social behavior, according to the following:
Chance for teams to develop relationships face-to-face. Participant I is from the sense-
Checking interviews:
“There have been many times when we tried with the team.
To schedule a Friday lunch for your team, please fill out the calendar
We tend to not like to just sit down and have a conversation about [work ]
to meet each other …. and just talk and see how the week goes
gone. However, the lunch meeting is always cancelled because people tend to forget.
To have too many things going on or to not be able to keep up with email.
Generally, they do this during their lunch break. Also, [email] does
Have an impact on the social side.”

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6.4.2 Are there any other communication methods that can present goal paradoxes
Email is often viewed as having its problems, but some researchers claim that it is actually quite good.
However, it is a better choice than any other form of communication to save money
Time and clarity. Participants prefer O’Kane & Hargie’s (2007)
Email to face-toface exchanges is a finding that Whittaker and Sidner support.
Participants who preferred to use email over telephones (1997)
Jackson et al. Report by Jackson et al. (2003) on the problems associated with being interrupted via email and the
time it takes to respond and recover. They also concluded that the
Email interrupts less than incoming phone calls.
call. Rose and Wajcman (2011) agree. Participants were
Face-to-face conversations are more likely to be interrupted than email or emails.
Telephone) where they had less control and were confronted with stronger competition
Sensitivity to urgency
Nurmi (2011) reports on email’s lack of ‘richness in context cues’, as compared to other communication methods.
Face-to-face and telephone contact can lead to difficulties in interpretation.
Finding support by 22 percent of Fallows’ (2002) participants However, again,
Participants who use email more often also increase mutual trust.
Understanding and knowledge are combined with the efficiency of email.
Reaching global teams has made it a superior method
Communication, despite its drawbacks. Participant K in the sense-checking
Interviews would agree with this. She mentioned how email makes it so much easier.
45
Interface with all the parties she needs to communicate on a
Global level Telephone calls were not considered expedient by Participant K
need to communicate with people from Australia and China; concluding that email works
A superior way to give easy access to colleagues who aren’t in the same boat
You have as much space as you need, while allowing you to complete your job faster and more efficiently.
Participants in Nurmi’s (2011) study also stated that face-to–face meetings were possible.
Exhausting, but mediated communication (telephones, skypes, etc.) Long hours
hours. Email’s main weakness was its propensity to overload, according to reports.
People who use it so often can have problems.
Having the time to deal it (Whittaker & Sidner 1997).

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Many studies that have been done under this theme show the many benefits of email.
Work productivity is a profound concept that workers recognize. This is a good thing.
This could lead to workers over-emphasizing the positive aspects of email.
This perpetuates its us e (Fallows 2002; Middleton & Cukier).
2006; O’Kane & Hargie, 2007, email still appears to be regarded as superior to
Face-to-face or telephone exchanges are possible in many contexts.
Also, workers seem to agree that misinterpretation can occur.
Do not use this method to deal with sensitive or complex matters
Researchers argue that it can be overcome in many ways (Fallows 2002).
Strategy training (Jackson and al. 2003), encouraging self-awareness (O’Kane &
Hargie, 2007, and the introduction Guidance Policies (Middleton & Cukier).
2006).
6.5 Summary
The second theme is Adaptation to email-use and development.
Some of the most important findings were:
Effective strategies
People develop idiosyncratic behavior when they are not given formal email training.
Personalized strategies that may not always be very successful
Email training and experience can be combined with formal training (subject to certain conditions).
Improve self-confidence This can improve people’s self-confidence.
Control over email at work and their productivity
o People who believe they can send emails effectively are less likely to be receptive
Training, policy initiatives, and technology adaptations
Management modeling is extremely powerful in influencing email
Strategies: If a manager is positive about their work and productive, email
This will have an impact on workers’ perceptions and behaviours
o Wherever there is confusion in work, guidance and policy are most important.
Email use (e.g. response time, etiquette, access out-of-hours)
Addictive/automated/habitual email-use
o Can develop when there are norms for quick response, people
Keep the notifications on, people use work extendable technologies (e.g.
smartphones)
o Can lead to overload and work-family conflict
Activity outside of normal hours

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o We push email work to be addressed at when we generate more work
Home; this can lead to work-family conflict, but it does not decrease.
Overload
o A blanket ban on work outside of normal hours is not supported by strong support
Email access is important because people want to have flexibility and also get protection guidance.
Use
Strategies’ impact on different goals
o Strategies and behaviours (e.g. Out of work activity
Positively impacting some goals helps one feel more in control.
Negatively impacting others (creates conflict between work and family).
47
7 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN EMAIL EXPERIENCE
This last theme describes how factors that relate to people, such as their personalities, affect them.
Demographics, job role, personality, and perceptions – impact on the
They use the same strategies. It also describes how different email contexts can lead to the same results.
Different outcomes can be achieved for different people depending on the factors mentioned above.
7.1 Differences in email activity
The SLR reports that participants worked in both commercial and non-profit sectors.
Public-sector institutions and high-tech industries, as well as educational institutions
Establishments, small and large, both locally and globally, in both
Part-time and full time positions available. Barley et. (2011)
It was concluded that there were no differences in the job descriptions of those with different job titles.
their demographic and socio-economic backgrounds in the study of how 79 knowledge workers deal
With work email, most studies sourced from this SLR would not agree.
All papers examined showed that the job function is consistent across all evidence.
All factors have an impact on your status, personality, and demographic characteristics.
How workers handle and experience email.
7.1.1 Job status and job role
Email use research focuses mostly on knowledge and experiences.

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Workers, including academics and high-tech workers, are likely to be especially in demand
They were reported on, possibly because they are accessible by the ease
researchers). Researchers are less likely than academics to get involved in active,
However, embedded email usage is more common than non-ac epidemics (Pignata and al., 2015).
The fact that they seem to read and respond more to email (Dabbish and co., 2005).
Pignata et al., 2015). This could be due to a negative attitude.
Their willingness to incorporate email into their work life and accessibility (Pignata
(2015). To understand why academics seem to be so enthralled by their work, more research is required.
These load issues and how they compare to other occupational groups.
However, high-tech workers seem to embrace email more than others.
It is important to integrate it into their everyday work (Barley and colleagues, 2011; Im 2008; Sumecki, et. al.
2011). Research shows that even though email volume is higher than any other, it still leads to increased productivity.
Occupational groups (Sevinc & D’Ambra 2010, 2010), high-tech workers
They consider themselves competent at managing and maintaining email usage.
(Venolia et al., 2001). Effective strategies require active engagement (Barley and al.
2011; Kalman & Ravid, 2015); and a feeling of confidence about email use (Venolia
2001, et al.
High-tech workers are equally susceptible to strain and overload.
Mano and Mesch (2010) reported that managers are more effective than other staff members when compared to each other.
Levels in their study of 354 participants. Managers reported sending or receiving
The most email. Managers are more likely to get personalised emails
Bellotti et. al., 2005), but other studies have shown that they do receive a high level of support.
The impersonal ‘cc’ (K imble and Mazmanian, 1998; Mazmanian, et. al. 2005). This is
However, this could be welcomed as Waller & Ragsdell’s (2012) research found.
Managers have a greater fear of missing out (FOMO), and will therefore engage more
Out-of-hours email for work to ensure you don’t miss any important information. Similar
Waller (2012) and Ragsdell (2012) reported that managers are concerned about long servers in an organization.
Organisation considers out-of-hours emailig to be essential to the job, and spend longer engaged in such activity. Again, this is again an FOMO.
motivation.

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In two studies, part-time workers were found to be receiving full-time employment.
Volumes of email despite the fact that they are often less productive (Pignata and al., 2015; Ramsay &
Renaud 2012). Two part-time participants to our sense-checking interviews
During working hours, they checked their email on their smartphones. As Participant I
This is because they have difficulty keeping up with the proportionately larger outline
They receive a lot of email. Part-time workers receive more email than full-time workers.
To deal with the issues that arise when you are not working ‘officially’, there have been suggestions to either increase or decrease your workload.
Email for part-time workers: How to allocate workloads
Managers to guard-keep incoming messages when part-time manager are absent
From work (Pignata and colleagues, 2015; Ramsay & Renaud 2012).
7.1.2 Demographic characteristics
The majority of demographics are based on the experiences of older people versus younger.
younger workers. The email style of younger workers is more casual.
(Fallows 2002; reported by our Pa rticipantK), while older workers use
Email is less common among younger people than it is for older ones (Higa et. al 2000; Sevinc & D’Ambra 2010, and
They are more likely than others to believe they need email training (Dawley & Anthony, 2003). As
As we have noted, older workers experience greater work-family conflict as a result.
engage email out-of-hours (Turel et al., 2011). This could be because of older technology.
Workers with spouses/partners or dependent families, i.e. More people will be
Emailing behavior outside of normal business hours can have a negative impact on productivity (Turel and al., 2011); Waller and
Ragsdell, 2012). The lowered ability to work and family conflict could also be a result of the lowered ability to work.
Chance of older workers incorporating email into their work routine (and
It is why it can cause problems when work email gets brought into the house: Fallows
2002). Older workers are also less vulnerable due to a lack of embeddedness.
Email addiction is more common in younger workers than it is in younger workers (Turel and al.
2011), but our Participant C reported younger workers seem to be less
They are less reliant on email and more flexible with alternative communication.
media. Particularly among the well-educated, active embedded email usage is common
High-paid staff are more common in large corporations.
Will work longer hours (Fallows 2002).
Some comparisons can be made between women and men.
Email-related stress and work are not affected by being a mother or a woman.
Effectiveness (Mano and Miesch, 2010). Different factors may help to balance this.
Strategies for managing work email: Women spend more time checking their email than men.
Email is a popular medium for men, but they email more outside of work hours, due to FOMO
Some of the most compelling evidence to support this assertion is in how we perceive our abilities.
Manage email that has an impact on our ability to manage email. Research into
There is a consistent message despite differences in personality. Particularly self-esteem
Self-efficacy and self-esteem appear to play a significant role. Self-esteem is a key component of our lives.
Opinions about our self-worth are subjective. Higher self-esteem is associated with those who are more confident.
Feel more in control of their email (Hai R et al. 2007) and less likely to report
Being overloaded with email (Sevinc & D’Ambra 2010, 2010). High self-esteem
Emotions are less likely than others to respond immediately to an incoming email, or to feel stressed by it.
(Hair et al., 2007). Self-efficacy is a subjective belief about one’s abilities.
Competence and abilities. Emailers who are proactive have higher self-efficacy.

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Better email management strategies (Huang & Lin, 2014), with higher levels
Email self-efficacy predicts better email time management and greater control
Over email and work (Huang & Lin, 2014).
Combine self-esteem with self-efficacy 17 to create a core measure of self-evaluations.
Reinke and Chamorro–Premuzic (2014) discovered that core self-evaluations can be positive.
Expected lower levels of burnout and overload from email. Worriers on the other hand
On the other hand, they perceive themselves as more overwhelmed (complimentary when they check their email).
volume is higher) (Jerejian et al., 2013) . Conceiving oneself as having a larger capacity
Workers are less likely to have the personal ability to deal with email.
Overloaded when volumes rise (Sumecki and co., 2011). Insufficient capacity was
Two sense-checking study participants found it to be a problem:
“… I don’t believe I have the ability to handle my emails
effectively. When it’s long, I tend to glance at it a lot.
Email, look rather than read, is a good way to go. But
Sometimes I feel like you are reading email too fast or not paying attention.
Glancing can cause you to miss key details. I don’t think so.
“I’d be as productive as possible if there were fewer emails to deal with.”
(Participant I).
“My husband works…in operation services, and he doesn’t have the
ability to deal with email, and his strategy for every occasion
He deletes his email account on payday. It’s not been resolved.
goes. He simply doesn’t have enough capacity to handle the sheer volume of
He receives emails. He handles it that way, and if necessary, he responds to it.
It is important that it will return through” (Participant A).
Researchers have discovered that personality differences can be measured, and that there are also differences in behavior.
There are many different management styles that can be used to manage the various issues.
email (Hair and others, 2007; Kalman & Ravid, 2015, Whittaker & Sidner 1997).
Workers who take active control of their email appear to be more productive.
To have a better experience with email. People who are organized with their email
By actively managing their inboxes and regularly clearing their emails, they will have a smaller impact
Inboxes have fewer unread mails and faster response times (Kalman & Ravid).
2015). They are more able to handle large volumes of email (Kalman & Ravid).
2015), believe email makes their lives easier (Renaud and al., 2006).
Have reduced overload perceptions (Sumecki and co., 2011).
This suggests that workers may believe they can handle their email.
It is central to their work and they are more inclined to use strategies to assist them
Feel in control and less likely perceive work email as problematic. However,
Perceptions of email activity and reality as reported by objective measures
As the following section reports, things don’t always go according to plan.

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There are not many solid scientific evidences to support the assertion.
How objective measures of email usage impact on perceived strain and overload. Most
Many of the surveys and studies in the SLR are based on self-report data.
Whether people are under strain or have a high email workload. This is what it means
If one is a certain mind-set or personality (e.g. High self-esteem/self-esteem
17 This includes locus of control (feeling that you can control the outcome of your life) and low
Neuroticism is being emotionally calm and stable.
50
Efficacy (seeing email as work-critical) may lead to perceptions of strain and load.
Even if objective volumes are high, less is better. Brown et. Brown et al.
Reporting perceptions of strain or overload is more important than reporting objectively
Figures (because it’s how one perceives threats that affect wellbeing that leads to the
Actual experience of strain according to the transactional model stress: Lazarus
Folkman, 1984). Only by understanding how objective reality matches one’s perceptions can one understand the difference.
We can gain a better understanding of the impact of subjective experiences by looking at perceptions
stress. Yet, it is rare to achieve this, as shown in the below-reported studies.
The data collected.
Kalman and Ravid (2015), for example, used objective monitoring in their study
Software to capture email volumes and process them in more than 7,700
workers. Researchers found that people with high volumes of email had higher productivity.
To be able to cope effectively, they should adopt strategies for clearing out their inbox regularly.
Responding quickly to unread messages and processing them. It would have been, however.
It is interesting to see how volumes and strategies are objectively measured
The perceptions of strain and load by the impacted workers. Objective and
Although subjective ratings can be compared, they are not always comparable. One example:
Renaud et al. (2006) asked workers to rate how often they check their email.
This was compared with objectively derived software-monitoring figures. Workers
It was predicted that email would be checked approximately once an hour. In fact, it was more often.
It happens about once every five minutes, which is a gross underestimation. Similar results were also found
Below is an example of a misalignment in objective measures
Physiological strain and wellbeing